With the help of miniature geolocators attached to the legs of 11 Arctic terns, it was possible to trace the routes of the annual flights of these birds, spending the northern summer in the Arctic, and the southern in the Antarctic. The study approved the title of champions in terms of migration distance. They fly up to 80,000 km per year - twice as much as expected. Over their 30-year life, terns cover a distance equal to three flights to the moon and back.

Seasonal migrations of birds are traditionally studied using banding and observations along the migration route. These methods make it possible to find out migration routes only in the most general terms. The real revolution in this area began with the advent of compact electronic geolocators - instruments that allow you to track the movements of individual birds. Until very recently, these studies were limited to large species (weighing more than 400 g), and only in recent years it has become possible to make very tiny geolocators that do not burden even small birds, such as the polar tern, weighing about 125 g.

Researchers' interest in this bird stems from the fact that it has long been considered the greatest traveler among all living things. Arctic Tern is the only bird species that nests in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in the Arctic, and spends the winter in the Antarctic. According to rough estimates obtained using traditional methods, it turned out that terns fly about 40,000 km per year.

To find out the real routes and range of Arctic terns, a group of ornithologists from Denmark, Poland, the UK and Iceland used subminiature one and a half gram geolocators. Together with a plastic ring that was put on the bird’s foot and to which the device was attached, the device weighed only 2 grams - less than 2% of the weight of an adult tern.

Birds were caught during nesting, in June – July 2007, at two points: on Sand Island off the northeastern coast of Greenland (74 ° 43 'N, 20 ° 27' W) and on Flatey Island Braidafjord in the west of Iceland (65 ° 22 'N 22 ° 27' W). In total, 70 birds were provided with geolocators: 50 Greenland and 20 Icelandic. The following summer, at the same points, the authors tried to catch ringed birds. In Greenland, they counted 21 birds with geolocation, but managed to catch only 10. In Iceland, they saw 4 ringed birds, of which one managed to catch. This does not mean that the rest of the birds died on the way. Krachki return at the beginning of summer to approximately the same area from where they flew in the fall, but not necessarily to the same point. A couple of hundred kilometers is not at all a distance for terns, in contrast to ornithologists who traveled along northeastern Greenland on dog sleds provided by the Greenland luge and patrol service (see The Sirius Sledge Patrol).

Geolocators recorded changes in illumination in real time throughout the year. According to these data, it is possible to determine the time of sunrise and sunset and the duration of the day, which in most cases allows us to calculate the geographical position of the bird with an accuracy of 170-200 km. Difficulties arise only when the birds are in very high latitudes (polar day), as well as during the equinoxes, when the length of the day is the same at all latitudes and only longitude can be determined from light data.

It turned out that terns fly south in the autumn slowly, with two long stops, and the route of the Icelandic bird did not stand out from the rest. The birds left their nesting sites in mid-August and soon reached the area of \u200b\u200bthe first stop - in the North Atlantic east of Newfoundland. Here terns spent 10 to 30 days. In this region, northern highly productive waters mix with southern, warmer and less productive. The Icelandic tern moved further south on September 1, the Greenland tern followed her on September 5–22. Off the west coast of Africa, routes diverged: seven birds continued along Africa, and four crossed the Atlantic and headed south along the coast of Brazil. Both groups of birds lingered for a short time at 38–40 degrees south latitude. Of the seven birds that chose the African route, three flew far east, into the Indian Ocean. All birds arrived at the wintering place - the edge of the Antarctic ice - between the 5th and 30th of November. The entire journey to the south took from 69 to 103 days, the average migration speed is 330 km per day.

The birds spent most of the Antarctic summer in the Weddell Sea area, where there is a lot of Antarctic krill. On the return trip to the north, the tern from Iceland set off on April 3, and the Greenland ones on April 12–19. Now they flew faster, without long stops and far from the coast, almost over the middle of the Atlantic. The duration of the flight to the nesting sites was 36–46 days, the average speed - 520 km per day.

The study showed that previous estimates of the total distance flown by terns per year were underestimated by half. In fact, these amazing birds overcome annually from 59,500 to 81,600 km (an average of 71,000), excluding movements during the nesting period. Since terns live for more than 30 years (an officially registered record is 34 years), they can fly about two and a half million kilometers in their lifetime. This corresponds to three flights to the moon and back, or 60 turns around the equator.

Ticket number 11

Question 11.1. The bodies entrusted with the protection of the hunting grounds of the region.

Answer: Department for the Protection and Use of Animal World Objects, Police, State Administration of the Yaroslavl Region, Department of Animal World Protection.

They exercise direct control over the conduct of hunting and fishing farms in the territory of the Yaroslavl region, as well as over compliance with hunting rules. Attract violators to administrative and criminal liability. Prepare materials for criminal and civil liability. Represent the interests of the state in the courts and arbitration. The protection assigned to the user of the hunting area is carried out by regular employees of the hunting farm (huntsmen, hunting experts).

Question 11.2. The order, timing and goals of feeding wild animals and birds (give an example).

Answer: Approximate norms and types of biotechnological measures for wild animals.

Based on the biology of wild ungulates, the priorities of biotechnological activities should be as follows:

conservation and improvement of the natural forage base and habitat;

the formation of food fields from highly nutritious crops and regular haying in order to constantly supply animals with green fodder and high-quality hay;

top dressing with juicy or wet food;

top dressing with dry high-calorie feed;

mineral top dressing;

device in arid areas of artificial watering holes, dams, dams on streams and rivers.

Animals begin to be fed during leaf fall, accustoming them to regularly visit feeding grounds and concentrate in the nearby hunting grounds. With snow falling and as its thickness increases, the feeding of animals increases.

Boar top dressing.  In hunting farms, for its feeding, grain wastes or oats, barley, wheat and rye grains, as well as corn, peas, sunflowers, lupins, potatoes, beets, carrots, Jerusalem artichokes, apples, pears, acorns, beech nuts, compound feeds, bagasse, various wastes of food enterprises, meat and bone meal, etc.

The estimated period for feeding wild pigs is 70-165 days, depending on climatic conditions, the daily rate of calculation is 1-3 kg per head, depending on the type of feed and the severity of winter. On frosty days, the daily ration is increased to 3-4 kg per individual. In fact, in the snow period, for each wild boar, about 300-500 kg of high-quality feed is required. To keep the wild boar in the hunting economy and reduce losses, regular summer feeding in much smaller quantities than in winter will also be useful.

Forage fields. Land plots received by hunting users in accordance with the land legislation are used for growing fodder crops and for harvesting hay for feeding wild animals. Fodder fields are set up with the aim of increasing the natural forage capacity of the land, as well as to distract wildlife from the damage of crops. Partially, the harvest from the food fields is harvested for winter feeding of animals, and partially left on the vine. It is most rational to lay food fields in small areas of 0.2-0.4 ha, distributing them over the land depending on the placement of animals. A set of fodder plants is selected taking into account the preference of their animals in a particular area.

For feeding elk, deer, white hare  in the hunting grounds, undercutting of aspen is carried out, branch feed is laid out. Aspen forest should be cut in accordance with the procedure established by forest legislation, mainly on cutting areas of the current and future years. By agreement with loggers, you can use logging residues in the cutting areas.

For brown hares, a feeding platform is arranged on a high open place, remote from settlements. A stake (1.5 m high) is hammered into the ground, onto which an unfrozen and salted oat sheaf is strung. There are several pieces of such sheaves in different places. With snowfall, it is determined how often hares visit sheaves, and depending on this, sheaves or bundles of salted hay are periodically brought up, which are strung on stakes.

For beavers.  Feeding beavers organized in the spring during floods, arid summers and winters in places where beavers lack food. Before the flood, freshly chopped willows and aspen trees are brought to the flooded beaver settlements. Some of them are assigned to standing trees in places of natural and artificial beaver shelters. At the time of flood, each beaver family needs to stock 1 m3 of branch feed. Where beavers do not have enough food, it is necessary to lay out branches of aspen, willow, linden, mountain ash, oak and other tree species near burrows with fall foliage already in autumn. In severe frosts, beavers rarely go outside. In such cases, an elongated (2-3 m) ice hole is punched near their dwellings, into which branches of the abovementioned tree species are laid upwards.

Solonetsy. All herbivores, especially in winter, as well as in spring and summer, need mineral fertilizing (salt). Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that permanent salt marshes are equipped at each feeding station. In winter, animals get used to salt licks and continue to visit them in spring and summer.

Question 11.3. At what distances are the projectiles fired from a smoothbore gun dangerous (bullets, buckshot, shot)?

Answer: The maximum range of individual pellets and the total safe range of shotgun

The greatest flight distance of an individual shot, and therefore the safe firing range of various shots at an elevation angle of 20-30 ° are:

The maximum range of bullets fired from a shotgun at a high elevation angle (40-50 °), reaches 1000-1500 m. With such firing, a bullet at the end can shock or injure a person if it gets, for example, in the face.

From the foregoing, it is clear that the hunter must carefully ensure that in the direction of the shooting there are no people, dwellings or pets at a distance of the maximum range of the projectile.

Question 11.4. Why is the hunting season and season set? Give examples.

Answer: In order to save wild animals from extinction, hunters from ancient times had rules that do not allow total destruction of both animals and birds. For this, restrictions on prey were introduced at certain times of the year, for example, in the summer period when animals feed offspring and the death of one of the parents can often lead to the death of the entire brood.

The ethical standards of people around the world, for a long time, forbade hunting animals in helpless condition (natural disasters, molting in birds) during unfavorable conditions (without food, freezing, fires, etc.) or more than is required.

In modern times, there are sanctions, restrictions and prohibitions regulated by law. Among which the leading role belongs to the ban on hunting outside the permitted periods of the spring, summer-autumn and autumn-winter seasons. The hunting season is strictly regulated and established by the management bodies of the hunting farms. Hunting in forbidden terms is punishable by fines and lawsuits.

Hunting farms, so that there would be no depletion of animal stocks, are not unsuccessful, apply different restrictions on hunting, restrictions on throughput, the creation of reserves, etc. Long-term hunting bans saved many species of rare animals, which subsequently multiplied and are now allowed for hunting.

Each self-respecting hunter must know the objects of the hunt, and without knowing the beast and birds not to raise a gun, observe the rules for obtaining game, which is necessary, not only to avoid fines, but also for the benefit of the hunters themselves, in whose interests - the preservation of animals.

Question 11.5. Tell us about the trunks of modern smoothbore guns, about their device, calibers and types of drilling. What safety precautions should be followed when cleaning trunks?

Answer: The barrel is a relatively thin-walled steel tube. They serve to place the projectile and charge, to disperse the projectile and its direction to the target.

The inner part of the trunk is called the channel and is divided into three parts: the breech (back), the trunk itself (from the breech to the muzzle) and the muzzle (front). In the breech of the barrel channel there is a section broadened in diameter - the chamber, where the unitary cartridge is placed when loading. Most often, the chamber length is 65 and 70 mm. Between the chamber and the bore is a projectile entrance, called the transition cone. It allows the use of shells without their exact correspondence to the length of the chamber and forms a shot projectile during its transition from the shell into the bore. The length of the transition cone is from 10 to 30 mm, and for good guns - from 15 to 20 mm. Next is the actual bore, having a certain diameter, called a caliber. The caliber is indicated by the number of round (ball) bullets cast from one pound of pure lead in an even count, exactly corresponding to the diameter of the barrel 220 mm from its official cut. The muzzle consists of a transitional cone and a muzzle narrowing, or choke. The muzzle narrowing “draws out” the shot shell, contributes to its compact flight in airspace, increasing the range and accuracy of the shot’s impact on the target. In modern rifles, the muzzle of the barrel (s) has ten different types (cylinder, flanges, Parker choke, cylinder with a set or reverse cone, narrowing with a reverse cone, drilling a paradox, etc.). In domestic rifles, the magnitudes of muzzle contractions range from 0.25 to 1.25 mm. The magnitude of the muzzle narrowing is determined by the difference in the diameter of the barrel before the muzzle narrowing and the inner diameter of the muzzle. For example, if the diameter of the bore is 18.5 mm and the inner diameter of the muzzle is 18 mm, then the magnitude of the muzzle is 0.5 mm. The length of the trunks of most guns ranges from 650 to 750 mm. In double-barreled shotguns, the trunks are connected into a single unit by soldering or fixing into couplings. An aiming bar or rear sight is placed on the trunks.

In connection with the ongoing clashes in different countries of the world, television screens constantly broadcast news reports from one or another hot spot. And very often alarming messages are heard about the hostilities, during which various multiple launch rocket systems (MLRS) are actively involved. It is difficult for a person who is in no way connected with the army or the military to navigate in a wide variety of various military equipment, therefore in this article we will tell in detail to a simple layman about such death machines as:

• A heavy tank-based flamethrower system (TOC) is the Pinocchio multiple launch rocket system (an infrequently used but highly effective weapon).
• Multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) "Grad" - widely used
• The upgraded and improved "sister" of the Grad MLRS is reactive (which the media and ordinary people often call the "Typhoon" because of the chassis of the Typhoon truck used in the combat vehicle).
• The volley fire system is a powerful weapon with a large radius of action, used to destroy almost any target.
• Unparalleled all over the world, unique, reverential horror and used for total annihilation multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) "Smerch".

"Pinocchio" from an unkind tale

In the relatively distant 1971, in the USSR, engineers from the Design Bureau of Transport Engineering, located in Omsk, presented another masterpiece of military power. It was a heavy flamethrower system of volley fire "Pinocchio" (TOSZO). The creation and subsequent improvement of this flamethrower complex was stored under the heading "Top Secret". The development lasted 9 years, and in 1980 the combat complex, which is a kind of tandem of the T-72 tank and launcher with 24 guides, was finally approved and put into the Armed Forces of the Soviet Army.

Pinocchio: application

TOSZO "Pinocchio" is used for arson and significant damage:

• enemy equipment (except armored);
• high-rise buildings and other construction objects;
• various protective structures;
• manpower.

MLRS (TOS) "Pinocchio": description

Like the Grad and Hurricane multiple launch rocket systems, the Buratino TOZZO was first used in the Afghan and second Chechen wars. According to 2014 data, the military forces of Russia, Iraq, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan have such combat vehicles.

The “Pinocchio” volley fire system has the following characteristics:

• The weight of TOC with a full set for combat is about 46 tons.
• The Pinocchio is 6.86 meters long, 3.46 meters wide and 2.6 meters high.
• The caliber of shells is 220 millimeters (22 cm).
• For firing, uncontrolled rockets are used, which cannot be controlled after they are fired.
• The longest firing range is 13.6 kilometers.
• The maximum area of \u200b\u200bdamage after the production of one volley is 4 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 24 pieces.
• The salvo aiming is carried out directly from the cockpit using a special fire control system, which consists of a sight, a roll sensor and a ballistic computer.
• The shells for picking ROSZO after the volleys are carried out by means of a transport-loading (TZM) machine model 9T234-2, with a crane and a charging device.
• Managed by Pinocchio 3 people.

As can be seen from the characteristics, just one volley of "Pinocchio" is able to turn 4 hectares into flaming hell. Impressive power, right?

Precipitation in the form of "hail"

In 1960, the USSR monopoly on the production of multiple launch rocket systems and other weapons of mass destruction NPO Splav launched another secret project and began to develop a completely new at that time MLRS called Grad. Amendments lasted 3 years, and the MLRS entered the ranks of the Soviet Army in 1963, but this did not stop its improvement, it continued until 1988.

Grad: application

Like the Uragan MLRS, the Grad multiple launch rocket system showed such good results in battle that, despite its "advanced age", it continues to be widely used to this day. "Grad" is used to deliver a very impressive blow to:

• artillery batteries;
• any military equipment, including armored;
• manpower;
• command posts;
• military industrial facilities;
• anti-aircraft systems.

In addition to the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, the Grad multiple launch rocket system is in service with almost all countries of the world, including almost all continents of the globe. The largest number of military vehicles of this type are in the USA, Hungary, Sudan, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Vietnam, Bulgaria, Germany, Egypt, India, Kazakhstan, Iran, Cuba, Yemen. Volley fire systems of Ukraine also contain 90 units of "Grad".

MLRS "Grad": description

Grad multiple launch rocket system features are as follows:

• The total weight of the MLRS Grad, ready for battle and equipped with all the shells, is 13.7 tons.
• MLRS length - 7.35 meters, width - 2.4 meters, height - 3.09 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (just over 12 cm).
• For firing, 122 mm caliber basic missiles are used, as well as high-explosive fragmentation explosive shells, chemical, incendiary and smoke warheads.
•   from 4 to 42 kilometers.
• The maximum lesion area after a single salvo is 14.5 hectares.
• One salvo is carried out in just 20 seconds.
• A full reload of the MLRS Grad lasts about 7 minutes.
• The reactive system is put into a combat position in no more than 3.5 minutes.
• MLRS reloading is possible only with the use of a transport-loading machine.
• The sight is implemented using a gun panorama.
• Manage the "City" 3 people.

"Grad" is a volley fire system, the characteristics of which even nowadays receive the highest score from the military. Throughout its existence, it was used in the Afghan war, in clashes between Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, in both Chechen wars, during military operations in Libya, South Ossetia and Syria, as well as in the civil war in Donbass (Ukraine) that broke out in 2014 year.

Attention! The Tornado is Coming

“Tornado-G” (as mentioned above, this MLRS is sometimes mistakenly called “Typhoon”, so both names are given here for convenience) - the multiple launch rocket system, which is a modernized version of the Grad MLRS. Design engineers of the Splav plant worked on the creation of this powerful hybrid. Development began in 1990 and lasted 8 years. The capabilities and power of the reactive system were first demonstrated in 1998 at a training ground near Orenburg, after which it was decided to further improve this MLRS.To get the final result, the developers over the next 5 years improved the “Tornado-G” (“Typhoon"). The volley fire system was credited to the arsenal of the Russian Federation in 2013. At the moment, this combat m The tire is only in the arsenal of the Russian Federation. "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") is a multiple launch rocket system, which has no analogues anywhere.

Tornado: application

MLRS is used in battle to crush targets such as:

• artillery;
• all types of enemy equipment;
• military and industrial facilities;
• anti-aircraft systems.

MLRS "Tornado-G" ("Typhoon"): description

"Tornado-G" ("Typhoon") - a multiple launch rocket system, which due to the increased ammunition power, greater range and integrated satellite guidance system surpassed its so-called "older sister" - MLRS "Grad" - 3 times.

Specifications:

• The weight of the MLRS fully loaded is 15.1 tons.
• The length of the Tornado-G is 7.35 meters, its width is 2.4 meters, and its height is 3 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is 122 millimeters (12.2 cm).
• MLRS "Tornado-G" is universal in that, in addition to the basic shells from the MLRS "Grad", you can use a new generation of ammunition with detachable cumulative warheads filled with explosive cluster elements, as well as
• The firing range under favorable landscape conditions reaches 100 kilometers.
• The maximum area undergoing destruction after the production of one volley is 14.5 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 40 pieces.
• The sight is carried out using several hydraulic drives.
• One salvo is carried out in 20 seconds.
• The deadly machine is ready for work within 6 minutes.
• Shooting is done using a remote installation (DU) and a fully automated fire control system located in the cockpit.
• Crew - 2 people.

Ferocious Hurricane

As it happened with most MLRS, the history of the “Hurricane” began back in the USSR, and more precisely, in 1957. The “fathers” of the Uragan MLRS were Alexander Ganichev and Yury Nikolaevich Kalachnikov. Moreover, the first designed the system itself, and the second developed a combat vehicle.

Hurricane Application

MLRS "Hurricane" is designed to break down such goals as:

• artillery batteries;
• any enemy equipment, including armored;
• living force;
• all kinds of construction objects;
• anti-aircraft missile systems;
• tactical missiles.

MLRS "Hurricane": description

For the first time, "Hurricane" was used in the Afghan war. They say that the Mujahideen, before fainting, were afraid of this MLRS and even gave it a formidable nickname - the “shaitan-pipe”.

In addition, the system of volley fire "Hurricane", the characteristics of which are respected by the soldiers, visited the clashes in South Africa. This is what prompted the military of the African continent to carry out developments in the field of MLRS.

At the moment, this MLRS is in service with countries such as: Russia, Ukraine, Afghanistan, the Czech Republic, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Poland, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Yemen, Kyrgyzstan, Guinea, Syria, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Slovakia.

The system of volley fire "Hurricane" characteristics are as follows:

• The weight of the MLRS fully equipped and in combat readiness is 20 tons.
• The length of the Hurricane is 9.63 meters, the width is 2.8 meters, and the height is 3.225 meters.
• The caliber of shells is 220 millimeters (22 cm). It is possible to use shells with a monolithic high-explosive warhead, with high-explosive fragmentation elements, with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines.
• The firing range is 8-35 kilometers.
• The maximum area of \u200b\u200bdamage after the production of one volley is 29 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 16 pieces, the guides themselves are able to rotate 240 degrees.
• One salvo is carried out in 30 seconds.
• A full reload of the MLRS "Hurricane" lasts about 15 minutes.
• The combat vehicle goes into combat position in just 3 minutes.
• MLRS reloading is possible only when interacting with the TK-machine.
• Shooting is carried out either using a portable control panel, or directly from the cockpit.
• The crew is 6 people.

Like the Smerch multiple launch rocket system, the Hurricane works under any military conditions, as well as when the enemy uses a nuclear, bacteriological or anti-tank system. In addition, the complex is capable of functioning at any time of the day, regardless of season or temperature fluctuations. "Hurricane" is able to regularly participate in hostilities both in the cold (-40 ° C), and with sweltering heat (+ 50 ° C). To the destination of the MLRS "Hurricane" can be delivered by water, by air or by rail.

The Deadly Tornado

The Smerch multiple launch rocket system, whose characteristics exceed all existing MLRS in the world, was created in 1986 and put into service with the USSR military forces in 1989. This powerful death machine to this day has no analogues in any of the countries of the world.

Tornado: application

This MLRS is rarely used, mainly for total annihilation:

• artillery batteries of all types;
• absolutely any military equipment;
• manpower;
• communication centers and command posts;
• construction projects, including military and industrial;
• anti-aircraft systems.

MLRS "Smerch": description

MLRS "Smerch" is in the armed forces of Russia, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, Georgia, Algeria, Venezuela, Peru, China, Georgia, Kuwait.

The system of volley fire "Tornado" characteristics are as follows:

• Weight MLRS fully loaded and in combat position - 43.7 tons.
• The length of the "Tornado" - 12.1 meters, width - 3.05 meters, height - 3.59 meters.
• The caliber of the shells is impressive - 300 millimeters.
• For firing, cluster missiles are used with an integrated control unit and an additional engine that corrects the direction of charge on the way to the target. The purpose of the shells can be different: from fragmentation to thermobaric.
• Firing range MLRS "Smerch" - from 20 to 120 kilometers.
• The maximum area of \u200b\u200bdamage after the production of one volley is 67.2 hectares.
• The number of charges and guides - 12 pieces.
• One salvo is carried out in 38 seconds.
• Full re-equipment of MLRS "Smerch" with shells lasts about 20 minutes.
• "Tornado" is ready for combat feats in a maximum of 3 minutes.
• MLRS reloading is carried out only when interacting with a TK-machine equipped with a crane and a charging device.
• The crew is 3 people.

MLRS "Smerch" - is an ideal weapon of mass destruction, capable of working in almost any temperature conditions, day and night. In addition, the shells fired by MLRS "Smerch" fall vertically, thereby easily destroying the roofs of houses and armored vehicles. It is almost impossible to hide from the Tornado, the MLRS burns and destroys everything within its radius of action. Of course, this is not the power of a nuclear bomb, but still the one who owns the "Tornado" owns the world.

The idea of \u200b\u200b"world peace" is a dream. And as long as the MLRS exist, unattainable ...

MIGRATION [lat. n gaio relocation] - 1) M. population - the movement of people associated, as a rule, with a change of place of residence; 2) M. animals - the movement of animals caused by changes in living conditions in their habitats or associated with the development cycle. M. can be regular, made in more or less certain ways (eg, seasonal flights of birds), and irregular, usually associated with natural disasters (fires, floods, etc.). [...]

Animal migration - regular and directed movement of animals “back and forth” from one habitat to another, caused by changes in living conditions in their habitats or associated with their development cycle. There are: periodic (migratory birds, seasonal migrations of fur seals) or non-periodic (eviction due to lack of feed of pine nuts from the north of Siberia to the south, etc.) migration. They can be passive (larvae, eggs, adult individuals carried by sea currents) and active (locust departures, migratory fish, migratory birds). Migration is also distinguished: fodder (in search of food), wintering (flounder in winter forms clusters in deep, warmer waters; in the same “wintering pits” they spend the cold season of bream, pikeperch, catfish, etc.). [...]

Seasonal migrations are carried out by many mobile organisms. Sites of the habitat in which the necessary resources are available shift with the changing seasons, and populations move from one site to another, of a completely different type. An example is the vertical migration of herbivores living in mountain regions. By the way, these annual high-altitude migrations clearly reflected on the methods of keeping pets in mountainous areas. In the summer, cattle, sheep, goats, and even pigs are driven to high mountain pastures; in this case, women and children are often shepherds, and men mow hay in the valley meadows during driving away. In these cases, as a result of relocation, animals usually get the opportunity to always feed where the best conditions are; with the change of seasons, they move and thereby avoid significant fluctuations in weather conditions and an abundance of feed, which they would inevitably encounter if they were in one; and the same area constantly. [...]

The seasonal variability of biocenoses is expressed in a change not only in state and activity, but also in the quantitative ratio of individual species depending on their reproduction cycles, seasonal migrations, the death of individual generations during the year, etc. At a certain time of the year, many species are practically excluded from the life of communities, turning into a state of deep dormancy (numbness, suspended animation, hibernation), experiencing an unfavorable period at a certain stage of ontogenesis (eggs, larvae, seeds), migrating to other climatic zones. [.. .]

Migrations are a special, extremely interesting type of settlement, in which there is often a massive movement of entire populations. Similar phenomena are possible, of course, only in motile organisms and they are best expressed in arthropods and vertebrates. Seasonal and daily migrations make it possible to use areas that are only temporarily habitable, and maintain activity and average population density at a higher level. In populations of non-migratory organisms, not only does a significant decrease in density often occur, but in unfavorable periods, organisms transition into a state of temporary numbness or hibernation. Orientation and navigation of animals migrating over long distances (birds, fish, etc.) is a very popular area of \u200b\u200bresearch and theoretical generalizations, but not everything is clear here. [...]

Seasonally changing semi-permanent ocean currents, California and Davidson, also have a strong effect on the shelf during lateral migration towards the shelf, especially in winter, when the bottom current is directed to the north. In the summer, the opposite happens. The currents are too weak to erode the sea bed, but they can carry a suspended sediment and increase the northward drift drift current during the winter. Mixed and semidiurnal tides of 2-3 m in height cause circular tidal currents, which reinforce other bottom currents, but are themselves relatively weak. Tidal currents on the middle and outer shelves have an average speed of only 10 m / s. However, on the inner shelf, the average flow velocity can reach 30 cm / s and is often enhanced by wave shafts. [...]

Seasonal migrations are known for many animal taxa. However, the physiological basis of this phenomenon has been studied in sufficient detail only in fish (spawning migrations of migratory forms) and in birds. [...]

All migrations considered in the above examples usually lead to the accumulation of individuals. In addition, life cycles are, as a rule, synchronized, so that mass migration is squeezed into a narrow time frame (it falls on a well-defined segment of the annual cycle). To equally short seasonal periods, events such as seed germination, insect emergence from diapause, opening of buds on trees, as well as the appearance of offspring in birds and mammals and replenishment of the “adult” part of the population with young growth are usually timed (see Section 5.7 ). [...]

With seasonal dynamics, there are more significant deviations in biocenoses, determined by the biological cycles of organisms, which depend on the seasonal cyclical nature. The change of seasons significantly affects the vital activity of plants and animals (periods of flowering, fruiting, active growth, autumn leaf fall and winter dormancy in plants; hibernation, winter sleep, diapause and migration in animals). [...]

In other seasons, the water regime of forest-steppe soils is characterized by the following features. In winter, due to deep freezing of the soil (1.5-2 m) and a stable negative regime of air and soil temperature, the absence of thaws, moisture migration from the snow cover to the soil and replenishment of moisture in the upper layers of the soil does not occur. The soil begins to thaw from the surface after thawed spots form in the snow, and areas freed from snow appear. During snowmelt, areas of soil thawed from the surface are moistened with melt water, but there is no deep soaking of the soil, since the permafrost serves as a water stop, preventing melt water from infiltrating into the soil. Therefore, deep wetting of soils and significant moisture recharge in spring does not occur here. During the thawing period of the soil, the moisture supply in the upper layers is replenished slightly and in most cases the spring moisture reserve differs little from the autumn one. [...]

During the period of seasonal migrations, clusters of birds from several tens to 200 individuals are observed: teal of both species, red-headed and crested blacks, mallards and large grebes. The maximum number of migrants on the lakes Turgoyak, Ilmensky and on sections in the floodplain of the river. Miass near the central residential areas reaches a total of 3 thousand individuals. Compared to the 1930-1940s. the number of waterfowl decreased by 3 times (Gordienko, 2001). [...]

The range of seasonal migrations is slightly less than that of the gray crow. [...]

The catadromic migration of juveniles can be of various types. Salmonids actively migrate to the sea, which is determined by regular ontogenetic changes in metabolism, osmoregulation, and other processes, united by the concept of smaltification. These changes are regulated at the level of the hypothalamic-pituitary system and endocrine complexes stimulated by this system. It is a specific physiological state, and not absolute age, that determines the beginning of migration. Using salmon as an example, it has been shown that smaltification depends on the photoperiod in its seasonal aspect. At an experimental cycle length of daylight hours of 6.8 and 10 months, smaltification started earlier at 5, 3, and 1 month, respectively; at a cycle of 16 months, smaltification was delayed (M. Thrush, N. Bromage, 1988). Similar data were obtained in experiments with Atlantic salmon: an increasing photoperiod in winter stimulates smoltification, and constant illumination violates it (S. Me Cormick et al., 1987). [...]

Seasonal vertical, sometimes repeated migrations of many hunting animals and birds in the mountains in southern Siberia (brown bear, red deer, partridge, etc.) are very common [...]

The daily rhythm of life is manifested primarily in the nutrition of fish. We can say that during the feeding season a number of other biological rhythms (daily migrations, schooling, dispersal of fish, etc.) are associated with the rhythm of nutrition in fish. One can answer this question with sufficient certainty and say that the daily rhythm, for example, of fish nutrition, is different in adult fish, juveniles and yearlings. But the question of whether the diurnal rhythm of fish nutrition is different within a population of, say, adult fish of the same herd or race or even species, has not only not been studied, but has not even been posed. [...]

Koblitskaya A.F. Seasonal migrations of juvenile fish in the lower Volga delta in the period preceding runoff regulation. - Ibid., 19586, no. 4, p. 209-235. [...]

Birds in different seasons of the year feed in different communities, for example, starlings in the first half of summer - in gardens and fields, and then, when the chicks grow up - in the forests; Bullfinches arrive in the winter in forests and parks in which there is food for them (mountain ash, viburnum). Many species of birds in the cold season are absent in the ecosystems of the North and the temperate zone, since they fly away to the South. Seasonal migrations are possible in search of food in ungulates. Especially important for a person is S.i. grass ecosystems, which are used as hayfields and pastures, since at different periods of the growing season plants have different fodder value (after flowering they become coarse, their protein content decreases and the amount of fiber increases); in pastures, depending on the rate of plant growth after grazing, in different seasons - different offspring and, accordingly, different pasture capacity. [...]

For the formation of seasonal conditions, gonadotropic hormones (gonadotropins) that stimulate the function of the gonads are of greatest importance; thyroid-stimulating hormone that controls the activity of the thyroid gland; adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACT1), which activates hormone production in the adrenal cortex; and prolactin, which is involved in the direct regulation of reproduction and (in birds) migrations. [...]

Chukuchan makes seasonal migrations in the spring — into the channels, backwaters, and elders (Shilin Yu. A., 1972). The mass of Chukuchan in commercial catches reaches 1.6 kg; average weight - 620 g. [...]

Biota is adapted to the seasonal climate: hibernation, migration, dormancy in the winter months. [...]

The most remarkable migrations associated with overcoming vast distances. As soon as it comes to terrestrial animals of the Northern Hemisphere, such relocations most often consist of spring movement to the north, where food abundance can be expected only in the warm summer time, and autumn movement to the south, to savannas, abounding in forage only at the end of the rainy season . Apparently, long-distance migrations are almost always migrations between two regions, in each of which there is plenty of food, but this abundance does not last long. The seasons of relative abundance in these areas alternate with the feedless seasons, and the year-round stay of numerous settled populations there is impossible. So, for example, the swallows that fly to South Africa every year are much more numerous than their settled relatives. Throughout the year, only a very small sedentary population is able to feed there, but in the feed season there is much more food% than sedentary birds can eat. Of all animals breeding in the Palearctic region (in the temperate zone of Europe and Asia), and migrating for the winter, 98% (by the number of species) winter in Africa - in the tropical woodlands and in the savannah (i.e. among deciduous vegetation), and their arrival usually coincides with the maturation of a rich seed crop of dominant herbaceous plants. [...]

The composition of dominants in different seasons of the year and depending on the type of technogenic reservoir, its area and age varies. In the nesting period, silt gulls (Larus ridibundus), lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), herbal (Tringa totanus), and starling (Sturnum vulgaris) dominate on silt sites. In the post-nesting period, lapwing, herbalist, lake gull, sandpiper (Calidris minuta) predominate; during periods of migration - lapwing, lake gull, rook (Corvus frugilegus), jackdaw (Corvus monedula), teal crackling (Anas querquedula), shirokonoska (Anas clypeata), turukhtan (Philomachus pugnax), starling, common crow (Corvus cornix) field sparrow (Passer montanus). On the clarifiers of the sugar factory during breeding time, bluethroat (Luscinia svecica) dominates; in the post-nesting period - turukhtan, large godwit (Limosa limosa); during migrations - teal crackler, red-headed black (Aythya ferina), rook. On the bodies of biological purification in the nesting period, the dominant black-headed gull, crested black (Aythya fuligula); in the post-breeding - lake gull; during periods of migration - a gray crow, crested black, mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), sparrow, rook. In water bodies of mechanical cleaning, jackdaws, field sparrows, blue pigeons (Columba livid), and lake gulls are dominant in the breeding period; in the post-nesting season rook, field sparrow, and gray dove prevail; during migrations - rook, jackdaw, gray pigeon, field sparrow. [...]

In most habitats, capercaillie is sedentary, but in some places seasonal movements are characteristic of them. So, in autumn from the forests where larch, birch and spruce grow, grouse fly to where there are pines and cedars - the main winter fodder trees. Another reason for migrations is the search for small stones necessary for grinding rough food in the stomach. In the plain, growing on sand, taiga forests of the Urals and 3. Siberia, mass movements of both solitary grouse and their flocks to pebbles are known. In winter, roaming, as a rule, does not happen, capercaillie keep solitary or in flocks, sometimes large, consisting of dozens of birds. Males more often adhere to the borders of pine forests and moss bogs with pine crooked forests, females prefer more dense forests. In the morning and evening, birds feed on pine or cedar needles, spend the night in the snow, and during the day rest on the ground or in trees or, in frost, sleep in the snow. In the most dull and frosty times they go out to feed once a day, in the middle of the day. In the absence or lack of pine and cedar, pine needles, fir, and also buds and shoots of deciduous trees are eaten. With the advent of thawed patches, they again switch to the summer diet, picking overwintered berries, shearing blueberry stems, and later eating a wide variety of green food, seeds, as well as insects and other invertebrates. [...]

Lifestyle. In the middle latitudes, the beginning of arrival occurs at the end of April - beginning of May, migration is very extended. Favorite habitats are meadows with sparse shrubs or at least tall, stalky herbs, which the mint uses as pristas. They also live on clearings and forest edges, along the outskirts of fields, on deposits, old peat bogs, grassy swamps with bushes. Sometimes several pairs settle quite densely, and nests are located only 50-100 m from each other, but still each pair has its own territory, protected not only by males, but also by females. The season of singing lasts until the chicks hatch. The nesting start is relatively late, in the middle lane it is the end of May - the beginning of June. Female builds a nest. It is always on the ground, in a recess, well covered among grass, humps, bushes, built of blade of grass, moss, roots, the tray is lined with thin blade of grass, wool. In clutch 4-8, more often - 5-6 eggs. In color, they are always darker than that of a black-headed mint, greenish or bluish, with a brown or reddish coating or an unclear rash, less often with weak spots on the blunt end. The size of the eggs is 17-22 x 13-16 mm. Only the female incubates, sometimes flies out to feed, sits tight, especially at the end of the incubation. When in danger, both birds fly with restless cries near the nest. Hatching - from the completion of masonry within 12-13 days. The chicks have dark brown fluff on the head and back, the oral cavity is light orange or dark yellow, with yellowish or creamy white beak ridges. Both adult birds feed, the fledglings leave the nest at the age of 12-13 days, begin to fly on the 17-19th day of life. Perhaps there are two broods during the summer. They feed mainly on insects, which are collected on the ground among the grass. Usually they look for prey from a low additive, sometimes they are caught in the air like flytraps. [...]

Erokhov S.N. Estimation of stocks of hunting waterfowl of the Kostanay region during the period of seasonal migrations (interim report) // Kos-tanay, 1998, 16 pp. [...]

Another way of self-elimination of an organism from adverse environmental influences are migrations that occur instinctively. There are regular (seasonal) and irregular (emergency) migrations. The causes of regular migrations are the change of seasons, worsening of the conditions of pptapia and seasonal physiological changes in the body that induce the migration instinct. For example, birds fly many hundreds and thousands of kilometers from nesting sites; for example, waders from northeastern Siberia migrate to Australia for 10,000 km. In the winter months, whales from the North Atlantic and the northern Pacific Ocean migrate to subtropical and tropical zones, fur seals from the Commander Islands to the warmer Sea of \u200b\u200bJapan. [...]

The most important source of material in the forming accumulative stratum of the glue podzol is the lateral migration of iron, aluminum, and humus from the ranges of soils (podzols) located above the topography. It arises and intensifies in connection with the differentiation of the soil stratum into podzolic and illuvial horizons, different in permeability. In areas with long seasonal freezing, lateral migration occurs along the upper part of the longest thawing horizon, which is horizon B. The lateral deposition of matter is facilitated by the location of gley podzol sections on the geochemical redox barrier: they occupy a place in the transition from well aerated podzols to to one or another soil with predominantly eastern soil conditions [...]

BIONAVIGATION [from column bios - life and lat. navigatio - swimming] - the ability of animals to choose the direction of movement during seasonal migrations and find their habitat, due to internal mechanisms of orientation in the surrounding space and instincts. B. is inherent in birds, fish, mammals, performing long-distance migrations, some reptiles, and others. See also Homing. BIONICA [from column bios - life and (electro) electronics] - a scientific discipline that studies living organisms in order to use the results of knowledge of the mechanisms of their functioning in the design of machines and new technical systems. For example, B.'s data obtained in the study of the flight of birds and insects are used to improve the design of aircraft; architects use the structural features of the bodies of plant organisms in the design of buildings, etc. BIOORIENTATION - the ability of organisms to determine their location in space, to choose the optimal position relative to environmental factors acting on it, to determine the biologically appropriate direction of movement. B. is based on the property of irritability and perception of external influences of a physical, chemical and biological nature and is the basis of bioavigation. BIO POSITIVITY of buildings and engineering structures [from c. bios - life and lat. positivus - positive] - the ability of buildings and structures to organically fit into the natural environment, not to destroy and not to pollute it, to be resistant to various influences and acceptable (bio-adaptive) for the existence of living organisms on their surface. [...]

The physiological characteristics of the migratory state are best studied in migratory fish using the example of Yshdroma spawning migrations. In these fish, as well as lampreys, spawning migration incentives occur after a long (from 1 to 15-16 years) period of marine life. Migration behavior can form in different seasons and with a different state of the reproductive system. An example is the so-called spring and winter races of fish and cyclostomes. The most common indicator that stimulates migration in fish is high fat content. As you approach For spawning grounds, fat reserves are reduced, which reflects a high level of energy expenditures for the movement and maturation of sex products, and in this case there are differences between spring and winter races: in spring, entering rivers in the spring, shortly before spawning, the fat content is not very high. [ ...]

They swim quite actively and have appendages that allow them to support themselves in the water. Daily vertical migration occurs under the influence of phototropism. Some types include only microscopic specimens (protozoa, rotifers), while others are represented by organisms measured in a few millimeters (lower crustaceans). They feed on algae, bacteria, organic detritus, and even each other. Their reproduction is subject to seasonal changes and is associated with the proliferation of phytoplankton. [...]

Following their crustacean food, fish sometimes make significant movements. Some movements have a daily rhythm, others are repeated in the same seasons of the year. For example, in the Aral Sea, amphipods rise to the surface of the water at night, and sink to the bottom during the day. Following the amphipods, the sabrefish and shemaya move. During the day they feed in the bottom layers, and at night they rise to the surface. An example of seasonal fish migrations associated with crustacean movements is the movement of lume fish - Harpodon nehereus Ham. from the family Scopelidae (Hora, 1943a). During the rainy season in India, from June to October, huge masses of water rush into the rivers, carrying a large amount of nutrients there. These nutrients, being carried out to sea, allow in the immediate vicinity of river mouths, and in particular the Ganges, to develop enormous masses of planktonic algae, which attract crustaceans from areas of the sea remote from river mouths. In places of mass development of planktonic algae, huge accumulations of crustaceans are formed, followed by lume. Locals are well aware of the time of the appearance of this fish, and as soon as the rainy season begins, they immediately begin to prepare for fishing. [...]

The entire terrestrial biostrome as a whole, as a cover of living matter, has mobility. The most mobile part is the aerial part of the biostroma, and of the structural parts, the micro- and zoostroms. Migrations of lemmings and other rodents are well known; hundreds of kilometers are measured by the seasonal interzonal movements of the reindeer, thousands of kilometers are spring-autumn migrations of birds. Fifty tropical countries are still not rid of invasions of “migratory locusts” whose average flocks, numbering up to 2 billion insects on an area of \u200b\u200b10 km2, move daily from places of morning “breakfast” to places of evening “dinner” for 20-30 km. If we take into account that the mass of each insect is 2 grams and the same mass of green vegetation is eaten by them every day, then using this example alone we can judge the size of the active movement of matter and energy in the ground biostrome. [...]

Oxygen man-made barriers arise most often during the pumping out of glue (rarely hydrogen sulfide) water from mines, adits, quarries and wells. These barriers, like the alkaline ones, do not affect the general course of migration of elements in the biosphere. However, there are technogenic oxygen barriers that arise over large areas. They are the result of drainage of swamps and control the migration of Fe, Mn, Co in a scale approaching the biosphere. Even more dangerous are the effects of oxidation at these barriers of previously buried large masses of undecomposed organic substances (mainly peat). The magnitude of these consequences can be judged by the terrible fires in the Moscow Region in 2002. Extinguishing these fires with all modern means for several months has not yielded positive results. Only the beginning of the rainy season led to the elimination of fires. You should think about this before drawing up plans for draining the swamps of Siberia and creating new oxygen barriers. [...]

The proposed plots include a number of lakes, including lakes. Kulagol, where one of the rarest birds of the world, the Siberian Crane, stops every year during the period of seasonal migrations. At WWF funds, a land management project for the allocated land plot was made. The proposed project was supported by Akim of the Naurzum district, Mr. S.A. Erdenov (2000) and Akim of the Kostanay region Mr. U.E. Shukeyev (2001). Documents have been prepared for the decision of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan. [...]

The areas of planned and ongoing oil and gas development have a high biodiversity. It is home to 108 species of fish, 25 species of marine mammals, of which 11 are specially protected. Opposite Piltun Bay in northeast Sakhalin, there are seasonal habitats of the Okhotsk-Korean population of gray whales that are listed in the Russian and international Red Books and are on the verge of extinction. The population totals about 100 individuals. To the south is a unique island. Seals, famous for rookeries of fur seals, sea lions and bird "bazaars". Numerous lagoons and bays of northeast Sakhalin are places of nesting and stops on the bird migration routes listed in the Russian and international Red Books. The main wealth of the Sakhalin shelf is the numerous herds of salmon - pink salmon, coho salmon, chum salmon, sims, chinook salmon, most of which are “wild”, i.e. emerging from eggs on natural spawning grounds. Other commercial fish species (pollock, herring, flounder, navaga, capelin, cod, smelt), crab and shrimp, squid and sea urchins also live here. In the north of Sakhalin, even sturgeons are found. [...]

At the first stages of migration or at a low thickness of the rocks of the aeration zone, which exclude the development of such asymptotic processes, it makes sense to modify these approaches depending on specific situations, in particular, boundary and initial conditions; the latter is especially important for the surface part of the aeration zone with a capacity of several meters: there are strong fluctuations in humidity due to seasonal changes in the natural intake and expenditure of moisture. It is clear that such modifications are all the more necessary for technogenic changes in the intensity of the moisture flow or other boundary conditions on the earth’s surface. [...]

For example, for pollutants represented by petroleum products (NP), whose density is usually lower than the density of water, the barriers to their paths are primarily aquifers. The waters contained in the soil layer, the overhead water, the front of the capillary rise of groundwater and, finally, the groundwater mirror serve as barriers to the migration of such pollutants. Therefore, most often the technogenic "deposits" of the NP are waterfowl, they are located at a shallow depth, within the first meters (less often - several tens of meters). The reservoir pressure of such technogenic deposits is equal to hydrostatic. In areas of permafrost, barriers to the formation of such NP deposits are permafrost, permafrost waters of seasonal taliks or seasonally frozen rocks. [...]

Apparently, the absence of habitats for the individual or herd is a rather rare exception. Now, with the help of aviation, it is quite well known that even very large transitions of herds of steppe or tundra animals occur within well-defined boundaries, and sometimes such vast areas can be delimited as habitats of separate, very specific populations. So, in East Africa, local populations of wildebeest make seasonal migrations over a range of 450-1,200 km within a territory of about 18 thousand km2. [...]

Thus, the eluvial-illuvial differentiation of this soil profile gives an idea of \u200b\u200bwhat the soils of this site were in the subboreal time, and possibly in the earlier sections of the Holocene. The initial stages of bogging of the considered area proceeded most likely by the mechanism of prolonged flooding, since the border of peat bog 3 was located quite close. Therefore, stable gleying was unlikely to enhance the removal of solids (in particular, sludge), but rather weakened this process. The migration of soluble organo-mineral compounds and iron continued and continues to occur due to seasonal fluctuations in the level of swamp waters. [...]

Currently, nature conservation issues have gained importance. It is now clear that saving any kind requires not only (and not so much) the protection of himself, but also the maintenance of his niche, stabilization of the community. All measures aimed at preserving the cheetah in the Central Asian deserts did not achieve the goal: this specialized predator was doomed to extinction as soon as the number of its victims, the gazelles, sharply decreased. It is not enough to regulate the shooting of saigas and wild reindeers; one must still not block the paths of their seasonal migrations by channels and gas pipelines. In short, the protection of any kind is the protection of its niche. The best results are given by landscape reserves, but the possibilities for their expansion are very limited. [...]

The first (main) option (Table 8.3.1) more or less corresponds to the state of the community in the 80s, when catch of pike perch was limited and its stocks began to slowly recover. A more accurate adjustment of the state of the community to official data on fish catch is quite possible, but it does not make much sense not only because of the significant share of poaching, but also because of the large number of uncertain coefficients (characteristics of the food base, spawning grounds, fishing intensities for certain fish species) . Moreover, for such a large body of water as Lake Ladoga, a model that does not take into account seasonal feeding and spawning migrations of fish cannot be the basis for a final judgment on the state of the fish community and recommendations for rational fishing. Note that the main option is stable in time with a transition process of 20-25 years (from a biologically meaningful initial state). [...]

Behavioral (ethological) adaptations manifest themselves in a wide variety of forms. For example, there are forms of adaptive behavior of animals aimed at ensuring optimal heat exchange with the environment. Adaptive behavior can be manifested in the creation of shelters, movements in the direction of more favorable, preferred temperature conditions, the choice of places with optimal humidity or lighting. Many invertebrates are characterized by a selective attitude towards light, which is manifested in approaching or moving away from the source (taxis). Daily and seasonal migrations of mammals and birds are known, including migrations and flights, as well as intercontinental movements of fish. [...]

A. A. Lovetskaya (1940) points to the existence of the same, smaller than race, intraspecific groups, which the author also calls herds, in the Caspian common sprat¡ (Chipeoneila delicatula caspia). The first of them, spending the winter in the South Caspian, in the beginning of spring begins to move north, mainly along the western coast of the Middle Caspian, heading for spawning in the North Caspian, from where part of this herd goes to the lower reaches of the Volga and other rivers where spawning takes place .. . The second herd of common sprat, apparently, spends all his life in the South Caspian, making seasonal migrations within it. "[...]

A number of researchers have discovered the toxicity of chlorine-treated wastewater for aquatic organisms. The Michigan Department of Natural Research has reported the harmful effects of chlorine on fish in some bodies of water below wastewater. In 96 hours, 50% of Canadian trout died at a concentration of total residual chlorine of 0.014-0.029 mg / l at a distance of about 1.3 km below the release. We observed how schools of fish try to avoid streams containing toxic substances. Due to these reasons, the wide straight channels of watercourses below the sewage treatment plant may become unsuitable for many fish. A barrier may arise that blocks the migration of some fish to the upper course during the spawning season. The increase in the amount of chlorine disinfected wastewater in such streams currently complicates this problem. [...]

Nutrition is one of the oldest relationships of the body with the environment. Adaptation to his lack may be behavior. instinctive, and due to processes occurring at the molecular level. The first include eating more food than the energy expenditures of the body. Excessively consumed food is converted into fat reserves, which are consumed under conditions that are unfavorable; for exploration. This is observed, for example, in copperfish, whose females feed their cubs in winter, without leaving their den. Other examples of instinctive adaptation to lack of food are the storage of food for the winter by many rodents and various animal migrations (whether within their habitat, to food-rich areas or long distances, like migratory birds). A significant way to adapt to the lack of food and water is the winter and summer snapshot considered earlier, associated not only with changes in the nature of nutrition, but also with seasonal fluctuations in the temperature regime, daylight hours and other environmental conditions. [...]

Shedding from a mating outfit to autumn (it is commonly called winter) in adult birds occurs differently. Sandpipers of some species are found within our region only in mating attire and change it for wintering, others put on winter plumage at the nesting sites, some birds begin to molt in the nesting area and fly away in a mixed feather, so that flocks can have different colored birds . In all species, molting in the spring outfit occurs at wintering sites, and they fly to us in the mating season. The change in the flywheel is gradual in all species; good flying abilities of birds are preserved. The character of the wing pattern is fully or mainly preserved in all outfits, and this is convenient for determining waders in flight. Almost all waders are excellent flyers with a fast and maneuverable flight; during seasonal migrations they can cover distances of thousands of kilometers in a single throw. Mostly migrate at night, even purely daytime species. All waders in our fauna are migratory birds.

designed for the removal from the cutting area (lower warehouses) of wood raw materials and round timber  to places of processing, temporary storage and shipment

According to their validity, forest roads are divided into permanent (year-round), seasonal and temporary (forest whiskers). TO permanent cargo assembly roads. They serve several logging enterprises; each enterprise takes out timber to transshipment points located along the highway. Next, the timber is transported to the junction of the cargo collection road, to highways forest road (the main section of the forest road serving timber baseenterprises for the entire period of its existence or for a significant part of it), branch (branches adjacent to the main line of the forest transport road, serving part of the forest raw materials base for several years; the duration of the branches depends on the size forest areas and the sequence of their development; the distance between individual branches is 2–3 km in areas with intensive logging, and 4–6 km in forest-rich areas. There are several categories of permanent forest roads by type of pavement (depending on annual freight traffic). Roads of higher categories have improved capital coatings, roads of lower categories - transitional and lower type of coating - gravel, gravel, improved unpaved. Freight assembly roads have, as a rule, asphalt and reinforced concrete pavement. The main coating materials for the main roads are gravel and crushed stone. In some cases, various organic and mineral binders are used to increase the bearing properties of soils.

Forest roads seasonal action designed for use in summer or winter. Winter automobile forest roads are designed for the development of cutting areas on weak and swampy soils, where the operation of vehicles in the summer is difficult or economically disadvantageous. Winter forest roads operate one or more winter seasons. The foundation of such roads is prepared in the summer by rough planning of the terrain, and with the onset of the first frosts the wetlands are strengthened with a deck of thin trunks and branches and compacted with light tractor passages. The cover for winter forest roads is a rolled snow layer or an ice layer 30-40 cm thick. Routes of such roads are usually laid along watersheds, floodplains rivers and other sections, bypassing steep climbs and descents. Temporary logging roads - logging mustache -designed for the development of individual cutting areas and adjacent to a branch or highway. The validity of such roads is not more than a year.

The transport network of a logging enterprise usually consists of one trunk, several branches and a large number of logging mustaches. In mountainous conditions, roads are mainly used for timber transportation. The mountain forest roads are laid depending on the ground conditions in valleys above the floodplain terracesslopes of slopes, gentle watersheds so as to reduce the slope of the transport route as much as possible. The cover of mountain forest roads on highways and branches is gravel and gravel, on forest mustaches - soil and gravel-gravel. According to the annual traffic intensity, mountain forest roads are divided into several categories that differ in operational parameters. Logging road, in addition to transporting various timber, can be used for forestry purposes, including when thinning, harvesting of wood chemical raw materials, etc. According to the rules standing forest forest users are obliged to maintain and bring to proper condition the roads, bridges and other structures that were disturbed during timber harvesting and transportation of other goods. At the end of the term timber transportation the main forest roads, the list of which is determined by the relevant agreement, must be transferred to the leshoz in a condition suitable for their further economic use.

Seasonal logging roads are mainly winter logging roads. Such roads are built in hard-to-reach places - swamps, marshes. This type of road is particularly worthwhile with the rotational logging method. Seasonal roads are covered with snow and ice. The cost of roads is almost 10 times less than the cost of summer roads, and the cost of transporting 1 m3 of wood per kilometer is 2-2.5 times lower. According to the type of coating, snow and ice roads are distinguished. Snow roads are divided into snow-packed and snow-ice roads. Snow-compacted roads are built at a low traffic intensity and the operation of light road trains. They are simple in design and do not require large construction costs. The pavement of these roads is a compacted layer of snow on a planned earthen base. If the snow on such a road is compacted and watered during the winter, then such a road becomes snowy ice. At the end of winter, the thickness of the snow layer reaches 0.5 m, which extends its validity by 8-10 days compared to a snow-packed road. A better coating of winter roads is ice. Ice roads are built on an earthen base, which ensures its greater hardness and evenness, heat resistance, speed and route load of timber road trains. The use of ice coatings allows extending the winter season of transportation by 12-15 days and bringing it to 100 days or more. To increase the strength of the coating and reduce its melting in spring, freeze chips, sawdust, and chips in open places and slopes in the coating. The strength of the coating with wood additives increases by 1.5-2 times, depending on the type and amount of additives. Tracked vehicles are not allowed on icy roads.